Molecular Characterization of Group B Streptococcus Serotypes By Multiplex Polymerase Chain Reaction / Caracterização molecular dos sorotipos de estreptococos do grupo b por reação multiplex pcr

OBJECTIVE: Group B Streptococcus (GBS) serotypes (Ia, Ib and II to IX) are classified based on variations in their capsular polysaccharide; their prevalence differs between different geographic areas. We examined the prevalence of all GBS serotypes in rectal and vaginal swab samples obtained from 363 pregnant women followed at a Brazilian referral center (Hospital da Mulher Professor Doutor José Aristodemo Pinotti); bacterial susceptibility to antibiotics was further determined. METHOD: Prevalence of positive GBS was evaluated by latex agglutination and by multiplex PCR analysis; bacterial susceptibility to antibiotics, such as clindamycin, erythromycin, levofloxacin, linezolid, penicillin and tetracycline was determined by the disk diffusion method. RESULTS: (a) standard GBS culture and the multiplex PCR analysis tested positive for 83 swabs, collected from 72 women (prevalence of GBS colonization: 72/363; 20%); the most prevalent Serotype was Ia (n=43/83; 52%), followed by serotype V (n=14/83; 17%); according to anatomical origin, serotype Ia accounted for 27/59 (46%) and 16/24 (67%) of the vaginal and rectal samples, respectively; PCR also identified serotypes Ib, II, III and VI. Serotype VI is rarely described and had not been previously reported in Brazil or in Latin America. (b) The latex agglutination test only identified 44 positive samples, all of which were serotyped: 34 of these samples (77%) had serotypes matching those identified by multiplex PCR. (c) Only one sample (serotype Ia) showed resistance to erythromycin and clindamycin. CONCLUSION: Regional studies on GBS serotypes prevalence are essential to guide immunoprophylactic interventions (vaccines) and the implementation of adequate antibiotic prophylaxis or treatment. In this study, the incidence of the serotype VI, a new and rare serotype of GBS was described for the first time in a Brazilian population.

OBJETIVO: Os sorotipos (Ia, Ib e II ao IX) do estreptococo do grupo B (GBS) são classificados baseado nas variações em seus polissacarídeos capsulares; sua prevalência difere entre diferentes áreas geográficas. Nós examinamos a prevalência de todos os sorotipos do estreptococo do grupo B em amostras de swabs vaginal e retal obtidas de 363 mulheres seguidas em um centro de referência brasileiro, o Hospital da Mulher Professor Doutor José Aristodemo Pinotti; a susceptibilidade bacteriana a antibióticos foi também determinada. MÉTODO A prevalência de estreptococo do grupo B positivo foi avaliada por aglutinação em látex e através de análise por multiplex PCR; susceptibilidade bacteriana a antibióticos, tais como clindamicina, eritromicina, levofloxacin, linezolide, penicilina e tetraciclina foi determinada pelo método de disco difusão. RESULTADOS: (a) Tanto a cultura padrão para estreptococo do grupo B quanto a análise por multiplex PCR testaram positivos para 83 swabs. A prevalência para colonização por GBS foi 20%. O sorotipo Ia foi o mais prevalente (n= 43/83; 52%), seguido pelo sorotipo V (n= 14/83; 17%); De acordo com a origem anatômica, o sorotipo Ia positivou 27/59 (46%) e 16/24 (67%) das amostras vaginais e retais, respectivamente; o teste de PCR também identificou os sorotipos Ib, II, III, VI. O sorotipo VI é raramente descrito e não reportado no Brasil ou na América Latina até esta data. (b) O teste de aglutinação em látex somente identificou 44 amostras positivas, todas das quais foram sorotipadas: 34 destas amostras (77%) tiveram os sorotipos coincidindo com aqueles identificados pela multiplex PCR. (c) Somente uma amostra (sorotipo Ia) mostrou resistência a eritromicina e clindamicina. CONCLUSÃO: Estudos regionais sobre a prevalência dos sorotipos do estreptococo do grupo B são essenciais para guiar medidas imunoprofiláticas (vacinas) e a implementação de adequada antibiótico profilaxia. Neste estudo, a incidência do sorotipo VI foi descrita pela primeira vez na população Brasileira, um novo e raro sorotipo do estreptococo do grupo B.

Serotype-specific effectiveness of 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine against pneumococcal pneumonia in adults aged 65 years or older: a multicentre, prospective, test-negative design study.

BACKGROUND: The serotype-specific effectiveness of 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV23) against pneumococcal pneumonia has not been established in people aged 65 years or older. We assessed the effectiveness of PPV23 in this population. METHODS: For this multicentre, prospective study, we enrolled all individuals aged 65 years or older with community-onset pneumonia who visited four study hospitals in Japan between Sept 28, 2011, and Aug 23, 2014. Streptococcus pneumoniae was isolated from sputum and blood samples, and serotyped by the capsular Quellung method. Sputum samples were further tested by PCR assay to identify pneumococcal DNA, and positive samples were examined for 50 serotypes by a nanofluidic real-time PCR assay. Urine samples were tested by a urinary antigen test. Serotype-specific vaccine effectiveness was estimated using the test-negative design. FINDINGS: 2621 eligible patients visited the study hospitals, of whom 585 did not have sputum samples available and were excluded from our analysis. 419 (21%) of 2036 patients were positive for pneumococcal infection (232 by sputum culture, 317 by sputum PCR, 197 by urinary antigen test, and 14 by blood culture). 522 (26%) patients were judged to be vaccinated in the analyses. Effectiveness of PPV23 was 27·4% (95% CI 3·2 to 45·6) against all pneumococcal pneumonia, 33·5% (5·6 to 53·1) against PPV23 serotypes, and 2·0% (-78·9 to 46·3) against non-PPV23 serotypes. Although no significant differences between subgroups were seen, higher protection was noted in people younger than 75 years, women, and individuals with lobar pneumonia or health-care-associated pneumonia. INTERPRETATION: PPV23 showed low to moderate effectiveness against vaccine serotype pneumococcal pneumonia in people aged 65 years or older. To improve the current pneumococcal vaccination programme, the variability of PPV23 effectiveness in different groups of older people must be further investigated. FUNDING: Pfizer and Nagasaki University.

Antisuero AA479: nuevo reactivo para la serotipificación de variantes atípicas se Shigella flexneri / AA479 antiserum: new reagent for the serotype characterization of atypical variants of Shigella flexneri

Shigella flexneri is divided into 13 serotypes based on the combination of antigenic determinants present in the O-antigen. A new O-antigen modification with phosphoethanolamine has been identified. The presence of this antigenic determinant (called E1037) is recognized by monoclonal antibody MASF IV-1. Given the increasing incidence of these new variants and the difficulty in supplying the monoclonal antibody to our country, we produced a polyclonal antiserum (AA479) through immunization with a S. flexneri Xv strain. The antiserum specificity was assessed by slide agglutination against isolates from clinical cases and a culture collection representing all Shigella serotypes. The results obtained demonstrated a 100% correlation between AA479 absorbed antiserum and monoclonal antibody MASF IV-1. The availability of AA479 antiserum in every public hospital in Argentina will allow us to identify atypical S. flexneri isolates in order to strengthen Shigella surveillance in our country and to compare with global epidemiological dat

Shigella flexneri se divide en al menos 13 serotipos sobre la base de la combinación de determinantes antigénicos presentes en el antígeno O. Se identificó una nueva modificación del antígeno O con fosfoetanolamina. La presencia de este determinante antigénico (denominado E1037) es reconocida por el anticuerpo monoclonal MASF IV-1. Teniendo en cuenta la incidencia creciente de estas nuevas variantes y la dificultad en la provisión del anticuerpo monoclonal para nuestro país, se elaboró un antisuero de tipo policlonal (AA479) mediante la inmunización con un cultivo de S. flexneri Xv. La especificidad del antisuero se evaluó por aglutinación en lámina con aislamientos clínicos y cultivos de colección, con lo que quedaron representados todos los serotipos de Shigella. Los resultados obtenidos demostraron una correlación del 100% entre el antisuero AA479 absorbido y el anticuerpo monoclonal MASF IV-1. La disponibilidad del antisuero AA479 en todos los hospitales públicos de Argentina permitirá identificar los aislamientos atípicos de S. flexneri; de esta forma se podrá fortalecer la vigilancia de Shigella en nuestro país y comparar con los datos epidemiológicos a nivel global

Streptococcus group B serotype distribution in anovaginal isolates of women in term pregnancy.

BACKGROUND: To evaluate Streptococcus group B (GBS) serotype distribution in anovaginal isolates of women in term pregnancy and to assess the correlation of the distribution with socio-epidemiological variables and neonatal outcomes. DESIGN: An observational study. SETTINGS: Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Specialist Teaching Hospital in Tychy, Poland. POPULATION: 80 women between 37 and 40 gestation weeks with preserved fetal membranes and who had not been treated with antibiotics for at least two weeks before the study. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The specimens from the vagina and the rectum of pregnant women were collected. GBS colonization tests were conducted in compliance with Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommendations. Serotyping of the isolates was performed using the Essum GBS Serotyping Kit (Umea, Sweden) according to manufacturer's instruction. Mein outcome measures. GBS serotype distribution in the population of Polish women in term pregnancy. RESULTS: In the studied group of 80 pregnant women GBS colonization rate was 28.7%. Four GBS serotypes were observed (Ia, V, III and II). Serotype Ia was the most predominant - 43.47%. For GBS Ia, V and III serotypes, no significant difference in the prevalence of diabetes mellitus and neonatal outcomes was observed. Only in one case early-onset sepsis was diagnosed in the neonate and serotype Ia was determined. CONCLUSIONS: 1) From among four identified GBS serotypes in the population of Polish pregnant women, serotype Ia was the most dominant. 2) For GBS serotypes, no significant difference in the prevalence of diabetes mellitus and neonatal outcomes was observed. 3) Active immunization aimed for preventing GBS colonization in mothers should include not only serotypes V, II and III but also Ia in order to be an effective and safe in preventing life threatening neonatal infections.

[The panels of serums, containing various subtypes and mutant forms of HBsAg, to evaluate the diagnostics sensitivity of kits oa reagents detecting HBsAg].

The detection of HBsAg in blood serum using immune-enzyme analysis techniques decisively matters both for diagnostics of acute and chronic hepatitis B and screening of donor's blood and its components, controls of persons from risk groups of hepatitis B injection. The making of panels containing wide specter of samples of blood serums with sero-variants and mutant forms of surface antigen of hepatitis B virus widespread on the territory of the Russian Federation is necessary to control analytic and diagnostic sensitivity of test systems for detecting HBsAg. The testing of reagents kits to detect HBsAg using twi panels containing recombinant and native variants of HBsAg, demonstrated that these kits enable to detect various sero-vatriants of HBsAg (ayw2, adw2, ayw3varA, ayw3varB, adrq-) in concentration 0.1-0.01 IU/l and the so called elusive mutant forms of HBsAg of recombinant and native origin (G145R, Q129R, Q129H, Q129L, T143K, T126N, T126S, D144A, M133L, K141E and P142S). At that, the sensitivity can differ during the detection of native and recombinant mutant forms. The results testify the importance of using the panels both with recombinant and native samples containing the mutant forms of HBsAg in evaluation of sensitivity of reagents kits.

Microbiology devices; reclassification of Herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 serological assays. Direct final rule.

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is implementing a direct final rule correcting the regulation classifying herpes simplex virus (HSV) serological assays by removing the reference to HSV serological assays other than type 1 and type 2. When reclassifying this device, FDA mistakenly distinguished between HSV serological assays type 1 and type 2 and all other HSV serological assays. At that time, and today, the only preamendments HSV serological assays which FDA was aware of were type 1 and type 2 and, therefore, the classification of HSV assays other than type 1 and type 2 was incorrect. FDA is correcting the classification of this device to eliminate possible confusion resulting from this error. Elsewhere in this issue of the Federal Register, we are publishing a companion proposed rule under FDA's usual procedure for notice and comment to provide a procedural framework to finalize the rule in the event we receive significant adverse comment and withdraw this direct final rule.

A comparative biochemical analysis of the NS2B(H)-NS3pro protease complex from four dengue virus serotypes.

The two-component protease NS2B-NS3 of dengue virus mediates proteolytic processing of the polyprotein precursor and therefore represents a target for the development of antiviral drugs. The amino acid sequences of the NS3 serine protease and the NS2B cofactor exhibit relatively low degrees of conservation among the 4 serotypes thus suggesting that differences in enzyme activity exist which could modulate their susceptibility to future protease inhibitors. In this study we have addressed the question of functional similarity among the NS2B(H)-NS3pro proteases from 4 dengue virus serotypes by employing a uniform approach to clone, purify and assay proteolytic activity of these enzymes. Significant differences were observed for patterns of protein formation and expression levels in the E. coli host. Renaturation of the NS2B(H)-NS3pro precursors from dengue virus serotypes 2, 3 and 4 mediated by artificial chaperone-assisted refolding yielded enzymatically active proteases, whereas the enzyme from serotype 1 was obtained as soluble protein. Kinetic experiments using the GRR-amc substrate revealed comparable K(m) values while k(cat) values as obtained by active-site titration experiments displayed minor variations. Denaturation experiments demonstrated significant differences in half-life of the NS3 proteases from serotypes 2, 3 and 4 at 50 degrees C, whereas pH optima for all 4 enzymes were comparable.

Human case of Streptococcus suis serotype 16 infection.

Streptococcus suis infection is an emerging zoonosis in Southeast Asia. We report a fatal case of S. suis serotype 16 infection in a Vietnamese man in 2001.

Combined multilocus sequence typing and O serogrouping distinguishes Escherichia coli subtypes associated with infant urosepsis and/or meningitis.

The genetic relatedness of 223 invasive Escherichia coli strains that cause either meningitis or urosepsis without meningitis in young infants was determined by multilocus sequence typing (MLST), ribotyping, and phylogenetic polymerase chain reaction grouping. We also determined the serotypes and virulence genotypes (on the basis of 11 virulence genes). The strains belonged to 29 sequence type complexes (STc), 20 ribotypes, 26 O serogroups, and 39 virulence genotypes. MLST combined with O serogrouping identified 49 subtypes, or "sequence O types." Some sequence O types were almost exclusively associated with either urosepsis (STc27(O2), STc27(O6), and STc29(O2)) or meningitis (STc29(O18)). In contrast, STc29(O45) was equally frequent in these 2 infection sites. Similarly, several virulence genotypes were specifically associated with one of these syndromes. These results point to the existence of specialized invasive subtypes that cause urosepsis or meningitis in infants and identify a new dually virulent invasive clone.

Isolation rate of non-hemagglutinating strains of Serratia marcescens from clinical specimens in a general hospital: comparison of serotypes O2 and O14.

Given the absence of recent reports on the isolation rate of Serratia marcescens by pili type, clinical isolates from respiratory and urinary tract specimens--prime loci of infection by this organism--were subjected to examination. The 123 S. marcescens strains (serotype O2, 67 strains, serotype O14, 56 strains) used in this study were isolated from inpatients at Showa University Fujigaoka Hospital during the 5 years from April 1997 to March 2002. Higher rates of S. marcescens O2 with mannose-resistant (MR)/K Klebsiella-like pili were detected among the respiratory tract-derived strains. On the other hand, more non-hemagglutinating O14 strains were found among the urinary tract-derived strains. Analysis by study phase revealed a rise in the isolation rate of non-hemagglutinating strains, from 0-17.4% for O2 strains and 34.5%-66.7% for O14 strains, between phase I (April 1997 to March 1999) and phase II (April 1999 to March 2002) of the study. In order to examine the increasing non-hemagglutinating strains in detail, the 28 serotype O14 non-hemagglutinating strains, and 8 strains with only mannose-sensitive (MS) pili were subjected to genotyping by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), revealing the presence of 10 clones with disparate genotypes. The A1 strain isolated at the highest frequency was non-hemagglutinating in all cases and possessed the same genotype, indicating proliferation within the hospital over the 5 years of the study. These results indicate that non-hemagglutinating strains were transmitted among patients within the hospital.

Pneumococcal carriage in United Kingdom families: estimating serotype-specific transmission parameters from longitudinal data.

Repeated observations of pneumococcal infection in 121 United Kingdom families (October 2001-July 2002) were used to explore the transmission properties of five highly prevalent pneumococcal serotypes (6A, 6B, 14, 19F, 23F). A family-based Markov model was developed, and maximum likelihood estimates were produced for model parameters. The authors found higher community acquisition rates among preschool children for all serotypes and higher within-household transmission for 6A and 14. Significant differences in the spontaneous clearance rate were estimated between age categories and serotypes, with 6B being carried for almost 4 months in children. Different mechanisms of competition between serotypes were investigated, and a complete exclusion model (i.e., the resident strain cannot be outcompeted by challengers) was discarded in favor of a competing mechanism that leaves a resident serotype partially or fully susceptible to challengers. Large variation was found in the challenging strength, which was low for 19F and 23F and high for 6A and 6B. Serotype 6B was the only one characterized by high resistance capacity. Only small differences in the transmission characteristics were found when vaccine and nonvaccine serotypes were grouped, suggesting that a serotype-specific analysis is needed to detect distinctive serotype behavior.

Prevalence, serotypes, and risk factors for pneumococcal carriage among HIV-infected adults.

From March 2000 through April 2001, 385 HIV-positive individuals were evaluated to determine the prevalence of Streptococcus pneumoniae nasopharynx carriage, to determine antimicrobial susceptibility and serotypes, and to study factors associated with carriage. Each patient was interviewed, and a nasopharyngeal culture, HIV viral load, and CD4 lymphocyte count were obtained. Of 385 patients studied, 64 were carriers of S. pneumoniae (17%). Intermediate susceptibility to penicillin occurred in 18 isolates (28%) and there were no resistant isolates; 50% of the isolates belonged to 3 serotypes (14, 6B, and 9V). One isolate belonged to clone Spain(9V)-3. Tobacco use and intravenous illicit drugs were associated with carriage; HIV viral load and CD4 lymphocyte level were not significantly associated with carriage. The use of the same unaltered antiretroviral regimen for a year or more was associated with a lower risk of colonization, suggesting that prolonged use of highly effective antiretroviral therapy lowers pneumococcal carriage and may lower the risk of infection.

Divergence of protein kinase A catalytic subunits in Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii illustrates evolutionary reconfiguration of a signaling cascade.

Gene duplication and divergence via both the loss and gain of gene activities are powerful evolutionary forces underlying the origin of new biological functions. Here a comparative genetics approach was applied to examine the roles of protein kinase A (PKA) catalytic subunits in three closely related varieties or sibling species of the pathogenic fungus genus Cryptococcus. Previous studies revealed that two PKA catalytic subunits, Pka1 and Pka2, control virulence factor production and mating. However, only one of the two plays the predominant physiological role, and this function has been exchanged between Pka1 and Pka2 in strains of the Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii serotype A lineage compared to divergent C. neoformans var. neoformans serotype D isolates. To understand the basis for this functional plasticity, here the activities of Pka1 and Pka2 were defined in the two varieties and the related sibling species Cryptococcus gattii by gene disruption and characterization, heterologous complementation, and analysis of serotype AD hybrid mutant strains. The findings provide evidence for a shared ancestral role of PKA in governing mating and virulence factor production and indicate that the exchange of catalytic subunit roles is attributable to loss of function. Our studies illustrate the plasticity of signaling networks enabling rapid rewiring during speciation of a clade of common human fungal pathogens.

Asociación entre la colonización materna de Streptococcus del grupo B serotipo III y la rotura prematura de membranas / Association between maternal colonization with serotype III group B Streptococcus and premature rupture of membranes

Objetivo. Examinar la asociación entre la colonización genital de mujeres embarazadas con el serotipo III de Streptococcus del grupo B (SGB) y la rotura prematura de membranas (RPM) en comparación con el resto de los serotipos de SGB. Material y métodos. Por medio de un estudio de cohorte retrospectiva se serotipificaron cepas de SGB de mujeres embarazadas. Se definieron dos grupos: expuestos, pacientes en las que se documentó SGB serotipo III en cultivos vaginales o urinarios, y no expuestos, pacientes en las que se documentó cualquier serotipo diferente al III de SGB, en cultivos vaginales o urinarios. Resultados. Se serotipificaron 135 cepas de SGB: en el grupo de los expuestos se incluyó a 43 mujeres embarazadas, mientras que en el de los no expuestos se incluyó a 92 mujeres. Se documentó RPM en 27 pacientes expuestas (62,7%) y en 17 pacientes no expuestas (18,4%) (RR = 3,3; IC del 95%, 1,2-7; p < 0,05). Conclusiones. El serotipo III se asocia tres veces a RPM (AU)

Objective. To examine the association between maternal colonization with serotype III group B Streptococcus (GBS) and premature rupture of membranes (PROM) in comparison with other GBS serotypes. Material and method. We performed a retrospective cohort study. GBS strains were serotyped in pregnant women. The women were divided into 2 groups: group I consisted of patients with a positive vaginal or urinary culture for GBS serotype III and group II consisted of patients with a positive culture for serotypes Ia, Ib, II, IV, V or VI. Results. There were 135 GBS isolations. Group 1 included 43 pregnant women and group 2 included 92 pregnant women. PROM occurred in 27 patients in group I (62.7%) and in 17 patients in group 2 (18.4%) (RR = 3.3; 95% CI, 1.2-7.4; p < 0.05). Conclusions. Vaginal colonization with serotype III of GBS was associated with a 3-fold increase in the risk of PROM (AU)

Sepsis y meningitis neumocócica 2001-2003: incidencia, clínica e identificación de serotipos / Pneumococcal sepsis and meningitis, 2001-2003: incidence, clinical features and identification of serotypes

Objetivo: Determinar las tasas de incidencia, características clínicas y serotipos causantes de meningitis y sepsis neumocócica en los últimos años. Material y métodos: Estudio prospectivo de los casos de sepsis y meningitis neumocócica que ingresaron en nuestro hospital entre enero de 2001 y febrero de 2003. Se aisló el germen en cultivo de líquido cefalorraquídeo y/o sangre. Se identificó el serotipo de neumococo en los casos que se produjeron en 2002 y 2003. Se analizan los parámetros epidemiológicos, bacteriológicos y clínicos. Resultados: Se han diagnosticado 14 casos, en 12 niños; dos niños presentaron 2 episodios de meningitis y/o sepsis. La incidencia anual fue de 15,38 casos por cada 100.000 niños menores de 2 años y de 9,16 casos por cada 100.000 niños menores de 5 años de edad. El 67% eran menores de 2 años de edad. Todos los mayores de 2 años presentaban algún factor de riesgo de padecer enfermedad neumocócica invasora. Los serotipos identificados fueron: 6B en cinco casos, 14 en dos y 18C en uno. El 69% de las cepas aisladas presentaba sensibilidad intermedia o resistencia a penicilina y el 54% mostraba resistencia a eritromicina. El 57% de los niños sufrieron complicaciones graves: dos (14%) quedaron con secuelas neurológicas graves y 3 fallecieron (21 %).Conclusiones: Las sepsis y meningitis neumocócicas tienen una alta morbimortalidad. En el último año, hemos observado un aumento importante de su incidencia. Todos los serotipos identificados están incluidos en la vacuna conjugada heptavalente. Actualmente, el método más eficaz para prevenir esta grave enfermedad es el uso generalizado de la vacuna heptavalente

Objective. To determine the incidence, clinical features and serotypes implicated in pneumococcal sepsis and meningitis in recent years. Material and methods. We performed a prospective study of cases of pneumococcal sepsis and meningitis that occurred in our hospital between January, 2001 and February, 2003. Streptococcus pneumoniae was isolated from cerebrospinal fluid and/or blood cultures in all the patients. Serotyping was performed in the cases occurring in 2002 and 2003. The epidemiological, bacteriological and clinical characteristics were studied. Results. Fourteen cases were identified in 12 patients. Two children had recurrent meningitis and/or sepsis. From 0 to 2 years of age, the incidence of pneumococcal meningitis was 15.38 cases per 100,000 population per year, and from 0 to 5 years of age, it was 9.16 cases per 100,000 population per year. Eight patients (67%) were aged less than 2 years. All children older than 2 years had a predisposing disease. The most common serotype was 6B (5 cases). Penicillin-resistant strains were detected in 69% of cases and erythromycin-resistant strains in 54%. Fifty-seven percent of the children developed serious complications. Conclusions. Pneumococcal meningitis and sepsis are common causes of morbidity and mortality. Their incidence increased considerably over the past year. All the serotypes isolated were included in the heptavalent conjugate vaccine. The most effective way to combat these severe infections would be through widespread vaccination with the conjugate pneumococcal vaccine

Human rhinovirus infection induces airway epithelial cell production of human beta-defensin 2 both in vitro and in vivo.

We hypothesized that airway epithelial cells, the primary site of human rhinovirus (HRV) infection, provide a link between the innate and specific immune response to HRV via production of human beta-defensin (HBD)-2, a potent in vitro attractant and activator of immature dendritic cells. Infection of primary cultures of human epithelial cells with several HRV serotypes induced expression of HBD-2 mRNA and protein, indicating that HBD-2 production was independent of viral receptor usage or mechanisms of viral RNA internalization. Induction of HBD-2 was dependent upon viral replication and could be mimicked by transfection of cells with synthetic dsRNA, but was not dependent upon epithelial production of IL-1. Studies with stable epithelial cell lines expressing HBD-2 promoter constructs, as well as inhibitor studies in primary cells, both demonstrated that induction of HBD-2 involves activation of the transcription factor, NF-kappaB. Other transcription factors must also be activated by HRV infection, however, as expression of HBD-3 mRNA was also induced and there is no putative NF-kappaB recognition sequence in the promoter of this gene. HBD-2 showed no direct antiviral activity against HRV. In vivo infection of normal human subjects with HRV-16 induced expression of mRNA for HBD-2 in nasal epithelial scrapings. Increases in mRNA correlated with viral titer and with increased levels of HBD-2 protein in nasal lavages. This represents the first demonstration that HRV infection induces epithelial expression of HBD-2 both in vitro and in vivo, and supports the concept that HBD-2 may play a role in host defense to HRV infection.

The 11th international workshop on Campylobacter, Helicobacter and related Organisms (CHRO), 2001.

Over 700 participants from 54 countries attended the eleventh Campylobacter, Helicobacter and Related Organisms (CHRO) meeting in September 2001. This meeting was an opportunity to update and better understand the microbiological and epidemiological complexities of Campylobacter. The mechanism of pathogenesis of this bacteria is not yet fully understood and important progress was made in the microbiological characterisation. The availability of over 100 different strain characteristics from various locations all over Europe, brought together by Campynet, is an invaluable tool for achieving this aim. There is increasing evidence to suggest that different risk factors exist for different species of Campylobacter. The link between antibiotic use in farm animals and increased resistance to some antimicrobials for humans still needs to be proved and some contradictory results reported on this issue.